Is Confucianism synonymous with Chinese culture? While it may be an overstatement to equate the two, there is little doubt that Confucianism pervades every level of Chinese culture and society. To be sure, other traditions such as Daoism and Buddhism have also left an indelible mark; nevertheless, Confucianism remains central to the shaping of the Chinese imagination. The influence of Confucianism extends beyond China to East Asia and through migration and cultural diffusion, other parts of the world. Confucianism traces its origins to the teachings of Confucius. What makes Confucius so special and what did he teach? This course will explore some of the key concepts in Confucian philosophy. Much of the discussion will centre on the Analects of Confucius, the foundational text of Confucian wisdom, although attention will also be given to the subsequent unfolding of the Confucian tradition. We will attempt to situate Confucian philosophy in its own context and to bring out its contemporary significance. Confucianism is a living tradition. Its vitality hinges on not only its continuing relevance in Chinese society but also its contribution to meeting the global challenges confronting the world today. There are no prerequisites for this course, other than a keen interest in Chinese tradition and culture, and the willingness to engage the Analects of Confucius.
L3.8 - Xunzi and the Debate on Human Nature
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來自 Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 的課程
Explorations in Confucian Philosophy
18 個評分
從本節課中
Part 3B - The Unfolding of Confucianism (cont'd)
The major landmarks in the development of Confucian philosophy itself will be considered next. These include Mengzi (or more commonly, in English, Mencius) and Xunzi, and particularly the debate between them on human nature, which is philosophically significant and also sets the stage for the subsequent unfolding of Confucian philosophy. As Confucianism developed, interaction with the ideas of Daoism and Buddhism became increasingly important. Consequently, a new interpretation of Confucian philosophy came to dominate the Chinese scene from roughly the 12th century C.E. This has come to be known as “Neo-Confucianism.” We will discuss briefly some of its principal tenets.
與講師見面
Alan K. L. ChanToh Puan Mahani Idris Daim Chair Professor of Humanities & Dean
College of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences
[MUSIC]
The American philosopher, William James,
described Mencius as a tender minded philosopher.
I don't know whether you would agree with his description or not and
perhaps you can discuss this with your peers on our discussion forum.
But the reason I'm raising this, is that tender mindedness
suggests a contrast with someone who is tough minded.
For William James the tough minded philosopher in Confucianism is Xunzi.
Xunzi arrived on the Chinese scene roughly fifty years after Mencius
in the third century B.C.E.
Now the name "Xunzi" or "Master Xun," of course, is a title of respect.
His given name is "Kuang" and he was also known as "Xun Qing,"
another honorific title referencing the political office he once attained.
Like Mencius, Xunzi was well known and
respected by his contemporaries as a great teacher and thinker.
At that time, in the state of Qi, there was an academy
where philosophers would gather and debate their views.
And Xunzi was there and he was recognised as a leader of the academy.
In his writings you will see how he criticised the other currents of thought
vying for attention at that time and
how he vigorously defended the Confucian tradition.
In his defense of Confucianism he also criticised what he
took to be erroneous interpretations of the teachings of Confucius.
In fact, an early biography of Xunzi describes him as someone who detested
the corrupt politics of his age and also the disgraceful and
petty scholars, who were just as much to blame for
the rampant disorder that was tearing the country apart.
Eventually, he had to leave because of slander and he took up an official post
in a neighbouring state to the south, where he worked for
about eighteen years, during which time he also settled down to write and teach.
Among his students were two notable individuals by the name of Li Si and
Han Fei, who became influential figures,
not in Confucianism however, but in the so called school of Legalism.
And they helped the state of Qin to conquer the other warring states and
eventually unify China.
Now, this may predispose us to thinking about
Xunzi's teachings in a particular way.
But let's not jump into any conclusions yet, we should always,
always be guided by the textual evidence itself.
Xunzi visited the state of Qin according to the available historical records.
And he was apparently impressed by the efficiency of the government there.
However, he complained that there was no attention given to Confucian teachings.
The king of Qin was entirely skeptical whether the way of
Confucius was of any use to him in governing his state.
Xunzi of course tried to persuade him otherwise, but without success.
His one time student, Li Si, who became the Prime Minister of Qin later,
said that the state of Qin was able to grow strong,
and was able to dominate the other states not by abiding by
the Confucian doctrines of Humaneness and Rightness,
but simply by doing what is most expedient and effective.
The philosophy of Xunzi is preserved in a book that now bears his name.
The book Xunzi, now contains 32 chapters or books or essays.
It is very well organized and reflects the development,
the growing maturity of philosophical discourse in early China.
They are still dialogues, but
the writing is predominantly in the form of discursive essays.
Each book addresses a particular theme, for
example, book one addresses the importance of learning.
Book 7 is titled "On Confucius,"
which presents Xunzi's interpretation of Confucian political philosophy especially.
Book 6 is entitled "Against the 12 Masters or Master Thinkers."
So the Xunzi is also an important document for
an understanding of early Chinese philosophical debates.
And this list of 12 includes Mencius.
Now for us, let's make this clear at the outset.
The issue is not whether Xunzi or Mencius was right.
The fact that Mencius and Xunzi, both great thinkers in their own right,
came to understand the teachings of Confucius in significantly different ways,
only serves to attest to the richness of Confucian philosophy.
Confucian philosophy demands reflection and constant self-examination.
There is, at its core, a spirit of critical questioning, one might say.
Confucian philosophy would be of little use to those who do not want to think for
themselves.
And Confusion masters like Mencius and Xunzi realised that
the basis of Confucian learning lies in trying to
understand why we do what we do, why we believe what we believe,
and to determine what is right and what is wrong.
While they may differ on important points of interpretation, they are in
complete agreement with respect to the spirit of Confucian philosophy.
Book 23, or chapter 23 of the Xunzi is entitled "Human Nature is Bad."
And this will form the starting point of a discussion of Xunzi's philosophy.
The essay begins with this important assertion and
I quote, "The nature of human beings is bad.
The goodness of people is due to dedicated effort."
By human nature or Xing in Chinese, Xunzi means and
I quote, "That which is formed by heaven and
as such it is not something that can be learned or acquired through effort."
Elsewhere in the Xunzi, nature is defined as what constitutes a human being or
that which is endowed in every human being at birth and
that by which human beings come to be as they are.
From this definition, Xunzi then argues that human nature may be described
in terms of certain basic drives, desires or natural tendencies.
Such as the desires of the ears and the eyes which is to say, all sensory desires.
Even more fundamentally, human nature is seen to be driven by the desire for
profit or that which benefits oneself.
And conversely, the innate tendency to dislike what disagrees with or
causes harm to oneself.
According to the philosopher Gaozi, you recall as we have seen in our discussion
of Mencius earlier, human nature should be understood in
terms of natural desires, such as those for food and sex.
For Gaozi, it would follow that human nature should be understood
as morally neutral.
Say my dog ate my lunch because of his desire for food.
I might be very upset with him, very angry with him, but
I wouldn't say that he is morally bad.
In Xunzi's view however, the argument here does not quite give the full picture.
And this is because desires always demand gratification,
this is simply part and parcel of the nature of human beings.
Take the desire for profit, again the concept of profit here
should be understood broadly in a sense that human beings naturally like
what pleases them, what agrees with them or what brings benefits to them.
Following its natural course in a social context, the desire for
profit will inevitably lead to people fighting over it either
to make sure that one does not lose it or to forcibly take it from others.
Consequently Xunzi says, any sense of regard for others or
giving way to the wishes of others, the very,
very basis of social harmony will surely fail to develop.
Following the inborn tendency then of disliking what
displeases oneself or what is disagreeable or
what causes harm to oneself in the social context will
lead to an equally, if not more disastrous end.
Dislikes may have deep psychological or neurological basis,
but the result is the same, anxiety, frustration or
anger arises leading to aversion or even hatred.
What is more, is that personal dislikes may be amplified at the social level.
Think of it this way, let's say I perceive someone behaving in
a disagreeable manner and that person is of a particular ethnicity,
I then amplify that perception to the entire ethnic group.
Personal dislikes in other words can grow like a cancer into potent prejudices,
distorting our judgement, infecting relationships with distrust and animosity.
Difference threatens one's sense of self interest according to this view.
Consequently, conflict and violence become the norm and
one can say goodbye to any sense of trust or respect in good faith.
The desires of the ears and
the eyes are driven by this deep sense of liking and disliking.
If unchecked, excesses, corruption and disorder will inevitably follow.
Which is also to say the end of proper conduct,
righteous behavior, and reason.
The argument is not just that conflict will arise because
of the scarcity of resources.
Rather, even if there are ample resources, order and
harmony based on mutual regard and trust will not be possible
if the inborn tendencies and the constant desiring
that constitute human nature and set the direction of the heart
are given free reign to dictate human life and action.
It is in this sense that human nature is said to be bad.
That is, it does not on its own lead to goodness.
On the contrary, if it is not brought under control,
it will lead to conflict and disorder.
This does not mean that human beings are born murderers.
But tyranny of desire will lead to conflict and violence.
The kind of control needed will be discussed later.
At this point it is important to understand the logic of Xunzi's argument,
how he comes to assert that goodness cannot be traced to nature,
but can only be attributed to human effort.
To Xunzi, Mencius was perhaps not entirely wrong in identifying
an emotion like love to be inherent in human nature.
As love can be seen to stem from the more basic sense of liking or
being drawn to another person or object.
Where Mencius went overboard is that he considered love in
its noblest form, which involves giving up one's interest for
the sake of others to be inherent in human nature.
Like any other emotion, love will also have to be shaped and trained,
so that this disruptive tendency is transformed into nobility of character.
It's like a piece of wood that is crooked as Xunzi draws an analogy.
It cannot become straight by itself, but has to be treated strenuously
with the right tools and methods before it can become straight.
A piece of metal that is blunt will not become sharp on its own.
Sharpness comes only with the application of effort.
So what do we need to do to straighten our human nature as it were?
The tendencies or predispositions of nature
are transacted through the workings of the mind and heart.
Should we be then aiming for a mind that is empty of desires?
On this question, Xunzi's answer is clear.
Desires cannot be eliminated, for they are basic to being human,
but they can be checked, controlled and even transformed.
How can this be achieved?
This will be the topic of our next discussion.
